Importance of Accounting Standards in Professional Accounting

Destiny Washington Essays (1531 words) - Poetic Form, Stanza

Fate Washington Teacher Hart Eng 380 2 April 2017 Prohibited Fruit: Gwendolyn Brooks' A melody in the front yard I've remained in the front yard for my entire life. I need a look at the back Where it's harsh and untended and hungry weed develop's . A young lady becomes ill of a rose. I need to go in the back yard now Furthermore, perhaps down the back street, To where the foundation youngsters play. I need a decent time today. They do some great things. They have a ton of fun. My mom scoffs, yet I state it's fine How they don't need to go in at quarter to nine. My mom, she reveals to me that Johnnie Mae Will grow up to be an awful lady. That George'll be brought to Prison soon or late (Because of the previous winter he sold our back door.) Be that as it may, I state it's fine. Fair, I do. Also, I'd prefer to be a terrible lady, as well, What's more, wear the fearless stockings of night-dark trim What's more, swagger down the lanes with paint all over At the point when confined from something, one normally gets entranced with the very thing, they are limited from. A tune in the front yard, by Gwendolyn Brooks, makes a similarity of the contrast between poor people and well off. She ope ns the sonnet with force, making the peruser anxious to peruse the following line. The organization of the sonnet is broken into four refrains. Creeks opens the sonnet with the illustration of an iridescent life in the patio and an exhausting life in the front. There are couplets present toward the finish of every refrain. Stream's joins similar sounding word usage, overstatement and embodiment and redundancy to build up a more profound importance and reason for the sonnet .. With respect to graceful feet, Brook's available a blend of versifying and anapestic feel. The sonnet was written in the 1940's when isolation was as yet legitimate in explicit pieces of the United States. This writings associates with social issues that happened during the tim e wherein it was composed. With the dark network previously having experienced the New negro development in the 1920's, paving the way to new issues with social class, and even the Great sorrow. Some African Americans had the option to migrate and better the lives for themselves and their families, while others couldn't. Indeed, even amidst the African American people group being not exactly; inside their own locale there was division. The target group of the sonnet is for both the adolescent and guardians. It stressed in youth nothing is ever enough. Youngsters consistently long for what they don't have. Stream's originates from an informed foundation, and presentations this with her decision of word usage all through the sonnet. The words she decides to strikingly depict each activity, individual, spot and thing was painstakingly made. She urges her perusers to burrow profound to completely get a handle on the message. She isn't addressing the network. She is representing and with the network with this sonnet. She is the voice of the little youngsters who consistently stay hungry for additional throughout everyday life, and not permit themselves to be confined off or isolated by social class. Creek's composes the sonnet for a first individual perspective. The storyteller gives off an impression of being a guileless kid, who is unconscious of the improper activities she anxiously needs to take part in. Stayed , infers that she has not been allowed the chance to go somewhere else other than where her feet are as of now planted. In the primary verse Brook's uses Look When an individual needs to look at something, it's something of intrigue. The female storyteller is in urgent need of a little look at the existence she's been kept from. This specific word Look indications to the perusers, that she has seen the terrace against the better judgment of her mom. Since she has looked, she is extremely mindful of the illegal life in the patio. The refrain shifts to the use of solid modifiers, for example, harsh and untended. The expressiveness of these words is utilized to depict the lawn. They additionally propose that the life in the lawn, that is longed for, is likewise not a

Leadership 101 Definition, Traits, Styles and More

Leadership 101 Definition, Traits, Styles and More “A leader takes people where they want to go. A great leader takes people where they don’t necessarily want to go, but ought to be.” â€" Rosalynn Carter © Shutterstock.com | ConstantinosZLeadership is a concept everyone is aware of, but only a few master it and its implications. In this guide, we will examine what leadership truly stands for and what it means in the modern world. We’ll explore the traits and characteristics of leadership, as well as the skills needed in order to lead. We’ll also explain the different leadership theories and the styles which current and future leaders can take advantage of.DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIPDefining leadership might seem straightforward; you just go to Google and type in ‘definition of leadership’, right? But the results tell a different story. Instead of a single definition of what leadership is and isn’t, you’ll be greeted with millions of pages analyzing the subject. Leadership is not an easy concept to characterize.If you examine the definitions in the Dictionary, you get a selection of descriptions. Leadership is defined as “the position of function of a leader, a person who guides or directs a group” and “an act of instance of leading; guidance; direction”, for example. But these definitions tend to feel like they are just scraping the surface and providing a stripped-down version of the word.The attempts to define leadership have been around since the start of the 20th century, when theorists started to tackle the issues surrounding leadership and management in more detail. One of the influential leadership theorists, Dr Bernard Bass, has said in the book Stodgill’s Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research in 1981, “There are as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.”If you study different leadership theories, you find different conceptualizations. Not everyone agrees with the concept of leadership meaning guiding the teams or even directing people, as some see leadership more as a motivating tool for empowering the individuals within the team.To understand how complex and varied the definitions can be, Warwick University compiled a list of popular definitions. These are great at showing some of the distinctions in how people view leadership. Here are a few popular definitions of leadership:Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation. â€" Hersey and BlanchardLeadership is the art of influencing others to their maximum performance to accomplish any task, objective or project. â€" CohenLeadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for the shared aspirations. â€" Kouzes and PosnerLeadership is the behavior of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal. â€" Hemphill and CoonsFurthermore, when it comes to defining leadership, it’s often easier to focus on the aspects that are not part of leadership rather than those that define it. Leadership is not about having a specific title or a position o f power. Being at the top of a company does not make anyone a good leader. But perhaps some disagreement comes from whether leadership is seen as a force for good or for bad.Travis Bradberry and Kevin Kruse defined leadership in their article What Makes A Leader as “a process of social influence which maximizes the efforts of others toward the achievement of a greater good”. But as history has proved to us, there can be leaders who are using influence and guidance to do bad things.Considering the various definitions and discussions surrounding leadership, it could be argued the theories have a few things in common. They tend to define leadership as a process:Of influenceOf increased attention and effort by othersOf pursuing a pre-determined goalAs the following sections will show, the means of doing any of the above can differ greatly between different theories and style.DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENTOne of the common misconceptions surrounding leadership is to con flate it with management. People who are simply managing can be considered leaders, while leaders might not actually be leading but simply managing. But how can you tell the difference?Warren Bennis wrote extensively about the differences of these concepts in his 1989 book On Becoming a Leader. In the book, he listed the differences, which are outlined in the following image: The difference is essentially about the direction or movement of the group. This distinction is clear even from the words: leadership is about leading, of taking the group towards something, while management is about managing, of controlling the current situation and holding on to the status quo. In a way, leadership is always about a specific objective or goal, which is not yet achieved. On the other hand, management is about ensuring the achieved progress doesn’t slip away.Furthermore, the objectives of the leader or manager can vary greatly. Management is concerned about the tasks and processes of maintaining the status quo. This means the attention is divided more towards processes and resources. Management often considers what tasks are required, how they can be improved or maintained, and what is the best use of current resources.Therefore, the role of management is about planning, organizing and monitoring. John Kotter, Konosuke Matsushita professor of leadership at Harvard University, told in a Guardian interview that:“Management is a set of processes that keep an organization functioning. They make it work today â€" they make it hit this quarter’s numbers. The processes are about planning, budgeting, staffing, clarifying jobs, measuring performance, and problem-solving when results did not go to plan.”On the other hand, you have leadership, which isn’t about the here and now, but what could be and the future the organization should move towards. Leadership is therefore more concerned about what the objectives should be and how the team can be motivated to reach the goals together.Professor Kotter identified leadership to be “about aligning people to the vision, that means buy-in and communication, motivation and inspiration”. For leadership, the processes are not necessarily the focus; it’s more about empowering the followers to work towards these set objectives.One further key area of difference comes from the approaches management and leadership take on communicating with the team. The traditional view is one where management is not about empowering or inspiring. It’s task-focused and so the objective of the manager is to help the team finish the procedures as efficiently as possible. There is a certain level of communication, but it is focused on managing the group, not elevating it to reach higher.Management isn’t aiming to necessarily boost the group or make it achieve something unique; as the goal is to get through the set tasks as efficiently as possible. But management is slowly changing on this aspect, as people skills are increasing in their importance in all aspects of the workspace.Therefore, the traditional hands-off approach, where management only reacts is starting to transform into a more people-focused. Nonetheless, management is still mainly interested in getting the job done as set out, but it’s starting to go about it in a more communicative manner.On the other hand, leadership is often b uilt around the interaction with the team. In many leadership theories, although not all (see authoritarian leadership, for example), the onus is on empowering the subordinates to achieve more and follow the leader’s vision. The leadership is not about managing existing groups, but gaining the attraction and respect of the teams that buy into the vision.It’s hard to make any leadership style to work if the subordinates are not willing to listen to the message. Because the style relies heavily on the team buying into the vision, leaders need to focus on people skills. In a way, instead of managing tasks, leadership manages the people and empowers them to achieve more.Finally, an Inc. article mentioned an interesting point about how the two concepts differ in accountability. According to the post, management can often come across more delegating in terms of accountability. Managers share responsibility with the team and therefore are removing responsibility away from their own des ks. On the other leadership tends to hold on to accountability, even when the leader takes a relaxed approach to being in charge. Since the vision is generally created by the leader, the failures along the way to achieve it mean the leader has the ultimate responsibility.The above doesn’t mean leaders cannot be managers and vice versa. In fact, leadership and management do often go hand in hand. A good leader often has to be able to mobilize and influence the team, while also focusing on directing people and ensuring conformance. While the differences are there, it’s not to say management and its characteristics wouldn’t be an important concept for leaders to understand.CHARACTERISTICS, QUALITIES AND TRAITS OF LEADERSHIPLeadership characteristics are not something mystical. The traits and qualities required for leadership are also not something you either have or you don’t have. These characteristics can be learned over the course of your career and developed further. All it takes is focus and determination to understand the building blocks of a solid leadership.AwarenessLeadership requires awareness because the leader has to be able to see the surroundings, understand the intricacies of different elements, and be able to analytically view the actions of others and his- or herself. Awareness requires the leader to understand the unique position he or she is in. This is not about thinking you are better than others as the leader, but about acknowledging the unique responsibilities and challenges you face as a leader.A key part of enhancing awareness is about self-knowledge. The more able you are with identifying your own strengths and weaknesses, the better you’ll be at identifying them in others. Knowledge as a whole is an important element in awareness, whether it is knowledge about the industry, the organization, or the human consciousness. Improvements in these areas can help leaders develop better awareness.ConfidenceConfidence is a state of mind â€" the feeling of trust and reliance on yourself and the things around you. Without confidence, leadership would crumble. No one wants to follow a leader who doesn’t have confidence in his or her abilities, or the vision they’ve put out. If the leader is confident, it doesn’t just help attract others to work towards the vision, it breeds more confidence within the team.There are numerous ways to building confidence, but the key to understand is that it can take time and conscious effort to change habits of low self-esteem and lack of belief. If you want to build confidence in yourself and in other people, try the following steps:Pay attention to your inner voice. Your inner voice has an important role to play in how you are perceived by the world. Ensure you focus on a positive tone. Instead of thinking, “I’ll fail”, tell yourself, “I can do this, I just need to try”.Shift attention away from comparisons. Stop paying so much attention to what others are doing and k eep your focus on yourLeave the comfort zone. Doing something you’ve never done before will boost your confidence because it provides you a sense of accomplishment.CourageLeadership is built on courage. The ability to create a vision, present it and get people to follow. Knowing that if your plan fails, the blame is likely to fall on your desk as the leader is not something most people are able to withstand. Without courage and the awareness that everything in life is rather uncertain, a leader cannot create positive change. Moving from one way of doing things to another will always require perseverance.The below Brian Tracy video will provide insight into building up courage in different ways in all parts of life: EmpathyAs mentioned above, leadership differs from management due to its emphasis on employee development. Big part of the empowerment and development is driven by empathy. The best leaders are those who seek to create meaningful relationship with the team and who are g enuinely interested in how the employee is doing. When leaders notice issues with subordinates, they don’t turn it into a personal blame game, but rather help the subordinate find constructive solutions to the issues.It might seem like empathy is a leadership trait you either have or you don’t. But studies have shown people can be taught to be more compassionate. Things like compassion training â€" where you consciously show more compassion for yourself, your family, strangers and even people you don’t like â€" can create changes in your brain and help you show more empathy in everyday life.HumilityLeadership can easily be seen as a pure mechanism for power, but the best leaders are also able to show humility. Leadership gives you an immense responsibility and power, and this should make you feel humble. Leadership is about being accountable and stepping in when you’ve made a mistake.Humble people don’t feel bad about responsibility or try to hide away from the limelight. Humility means learning to respect and to understand the value of other people and systems around you, and acknowledging the impact they played on your journey to being a leader.HonestyHonesty is another major characteristic defining leadership. It’s about the ability to stay true to yourself and the vision, even when things get tough. It’s also about the ability to take in criticism, as well as to provide it, without it creating more issues. Above all, honesty means sharing information openly with the team.Naturally, it doesn’t mean spitting out sensitive information, but it does imply the leader having an open door and not trying to actively hide away information from the team â€" leadership is not about spin control. Ray Davis, CEO of Umpqua Bank, put it well in his book Leading Through Uncertainty, when he said:I always tell our people that they’re entitled to get answers to like to answers. But it’s going to be truthful, and I know they can deal with the truth. This m ight create additional questions, but we’ll get through them. And we do.Furthermore, below is a short clip about honesty and it’s importance to leadership: ConvictionLeadership relies heavily on conviction since you can’t put forward a vision if you aren’t committed enough to see it through. Conviction means that you trust and believe in your idea, and you are willing to weather the storms to achieve the vision. If you show conviction as a leader, you’ll inspire others to follow.It’s crucial to understand conviction isn’t the same as blind stubbornness. Trust in your vision doesn’t mean you aren’t willing to listen, to improve, and to change your path if the evidence tells you to do so. It simply means you don’t give up just because someone doesn’t agree with you or if you encounter a problem.The World Economic Forum published a post by Dr Travis Bradberry, the award-winning author and entrepreneur, who explained in detail why conviction matters and how to prac tice it. The key points to take away from the article, in terms of the actions that show conviction, include:Start thinking positively and remain confident.Learn to trust your intuition and show strength in the face of adversity.Lead by example, but avoid a preaching attitude. Do what you think is right, don’t tell others what to do.Stop second-guessing what might happen and live in the moment.FlexibilityAs mentioned before, conviction doesn’t equity to stubbornness and therefore, leadership requires flexibility. A good leader understands that situations change, people are different, and therefore, solutions might not always be the same. Flexibility is a trait ensuring the leader is able to read the moment, predict the future, and react to change without it causing disturbance in the vision.AssertiveSometimes assertiveness is mixed with aggressive behavior or being ‘bossy’. But it’s actually a characteristic of being able to stand up for what you believe in. Assertive beha vior is not about using your leadership position to bully people or be aggressive. Assertiveness simply means getting your point and vision across in a positive manner.The image below outlines the key qualities of an assertive person. Examine it and start using both the verbal and non-verbal cues in your everyday life and communication. Source: LifehackerInspirationalPerhaps the most important trait for a leader is the ability to inspire. Leadership is always about creating a vision of a something better or new. But since the human mind is often wary of change, the leader’s role is to communicate the vision in a way that inspires the team to action. Leadership is largely about creating an environment that motivates others to follow and pursue the goals, even if they seem far away and difficult to achieve.Forbes contributor Erika Anderson wrote about a study by Keas, an employee health and wellness company, which examined the HR mistakes leaders tend to make most. The top answers and the easiest ways to become more inspirational were:64% of respondents said leaders don’t know what motivates the employees â€" Therefore, you need to start understanding and analyzing the passions and interests of the subordinates.41% of respondents felt leaders don’t lead by example â€" If you expect a specific behavior from your subordinates, you should be willing to lead by example.32% of respondents told leaders don’t prioritize company culture â€" Leadership’s major focus should always be on creating a strong company culture that supports the vision.THE IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP“An army of sheep led by a lion can defeat an army of lions led by a sheep.” â€" African proverbThe importance of leadership is perfectly captured by the above African proverb. A leader can make a difference in whether a team is a success or a failure. The human history is full of examples that outline the significance of a leader, for good and for bad.Martin Luther King wasn’t the only one with a dream, but he was the only one who was able to articulate the dream with the nation and get people to follow his vision. Because of his leadership and his ability to empower people who agreed with his arguments, he was able to transform society and continue to inspire generations.But it’s crucial to note, leadership’s transf ormative powers are not always a force for good. History has also provided leaders such as Joseph Stalin, who’s leadership ended creating destruction and led to the deaths of millions of people. Nonetheless, the examples encapsulate the power of leadership.Leadership is essentially a catalyst for action and it can ensure the different elements within the organization are functioning as efficiently as possible. For good or for bad, depending on the type of leadership that’s present, leadership guarantees results. Leadership matters because it:Provides a vision â€" Leadership should always start with a vision towards which the organization moves. No organization or team can survive without a clear idea of where it wants to be and what it wants to achieve.Shows direction â€" The vision provides the organization with a direction and guarantees it stays on course. It ensures the organization isn’t aimlessly floating in the sea, but navigates its way towards the port.Initiates actio n â€" The above two help initiate movement, as leadership generates a roadmap of actions for achieving the goals. Sometimes leadership’s influence is about directing people towards action, but sometimes the understanding of the vision can help people take action on their own.Supplies guidance â€" Not only does leadership help start action, but it also creates an environment of support. It instructs the subordinates towards the right direction and explains the actions that are needed.Sets out organizational culture â€" Leadership also provides organizations with a culture, which is important to ensuring there is coherence across the organization. It ensures employees and customers alike know what they are getting when they are dealing with the company.Builds up confidence â€" With the help of a clearly outlined vision and an action plan, leadership is able to generate more confidence within a team. For subordinates, having a person to guide, explain and support you through the proc ess can be a crucial part of succeeding.Grants motivation â€" Leadership always provides subordinates with incentives to follow. The different styles have different ways of motivating, but leadership tends to generate an environment of reward, whether financial or non-financial.Attracts talent â€" Today’s world is all about the knowledge worker. Today’s employee is not just looking to perform tasks; they want to put their own skills to good use and to develop their abilities further. The employee is essentially often looking for a challenge and appreciation. Leadership, through its vision and motivational nature, can better attract the right talent to the organization, which in turn will enhance its success rate.In essence, leadership is important because it ensures the organization isn’t just operating, but actively achieving something. It provides the company with objectives, direction and guidance. It creates unity and cohesion, empowering people to work towards a shared vi sion and to succeed in doing so.Watch the below video by LeaderMOOC in which different people answer the question ‘Why is leadership important?” for the multitude of reasons why leadership matters in each area of life: LEADERSHIP SKILLSWe’ve discussed the characteristics and traits of leadership and leaders, but what about the skills? Studies have been conducted, asking leaders and subordinates alike what are the skills that can motivate and inspire people to follow the vision. The following five are often at the centre of the findings and are definitely the integral elements for creating solid leadership.People skillsLeadership is all about attracting people to your vision and getting the team to perform tasks that bring the organization closer to the goals. Without the skills to interact, work and guide other people, the leadership is doomed to fall apart.Although there is a lot of talk about things such as emotional intelligence, explained informatively in the SlideShare pr esentation below, people skills essentially boil down to a few basic interactions leaders need to excel in.[slideshare id=44125859doc=ob-emotionalintelligence-150201065833-conversion-gate02w=640h=330]The core elements to improving people skills are:Learning how to delegate. Leaders have to be able to share responsibility, find the right people for specific tasks, motivate and guide people through the process.Knowing how to give and receive feedback. Leadership requires plenty of feedback, occasionally going in both directions: to and from the leader. It’s vital to know how to provide constructive feedback that will improve performance and help with achieving the objectives.Understanding behavior. This is similar to emotional intelligence, in a sense that leaders need to be able to read the reasons behind people’s actions. It’s crucial to understand what emotions can tell you and how to direct behavior into something more positive.Being able to work as a team. While leadership is often about leading others, there are still plenty of elements of co-operation. Leaders must be able to work also as part of a team, not just be good at taking charge.CommunicationRelated to people skills is the skill of communication. Leaders are essentially visionary storytellers who must be able to convince and inspire others with their message. Communication is also much more than the ability to talk in an inspiring way. Communication is built through the ability to listen, to negotiate and by creating meaningful connections.The Lynda.com video explains the keys to communicating in a business environment. The video itself is a great example of effective communication and getting your message across in a concise manner. Decision-makingAs we’ll see in the later sections, decision-making can differ in different leadership styles, but it’s nonetheless an essential skill to possess. All of us need to make decision multiple times a day, and it’s often something we do without paying much attention. Leadership is about being able to make decisions in an efficient manner and with confidence that you’ve made the right choice.In an informative article on decision-making, Skills You Need suggests there to be two separate ways of making a decision: intuition and reasoning. Intuition is about listening to you inner feeling, about relying on what your emotions are telling you, while the reasoning method is about the utilization of facts and figures.It removes the emotion out of your decision-making and relies on the logical conclusions. It might seem like reasoning is the best course of action to take, but it can actually be helpful to use both strategies.Problem-solvingBeing able to make decisions is an important skill, but to complement it, leadership needs to solve problems as well. John Foster Dulles, former US Secretary of State, has once said,The measure of success is not whether you have a tough problem to deal with, but whether it is the same problem y ou had last year.If you can’t solve problems, you can’t move towards the vision.Whenever there is a problem, you should implement the following steps:Identify the problem. First, you need to recognize there’s a problem and stop avoiding it. You must then identify exactly what the issue is and define it clearly.Structure the problem. It’s a good idea to observe the issue and carefully dissect it into smaller pieces. For example, if customer complaints are about ineffective customer service, pay attention to how the system works and identify the different elements creating the bigger issue.Look for solutions. Once you are aware of the different components, you can start looking for solutions to each problem. Remember to use people’s expertise and don’t be afraid to ask other people for opinions.Make a decision. After you have solutions available, pick the ones you think are the best. Think about the bigger picture. While some solutions might provide quick fixes, they might be costlier and so on. Weigh in these elements and choose the best for the organization and for the mission you are achieving.Implement your solution and monitor progress. Create a clear plan of action for implementation and start monitoring the effectiveness of your solution.Strategic thinkingPerhaps one of the most essential leadership skills is strategic thinking. Strategic thinking is often considered as a skill only a selected few posses, but it can be learned and developed. What is strategic thinking? It’s essentially the ability to have a long-term vision combined with short-term actions. It uses problem solving and decision making to get from point A to point B without harming the objectives along the way.Improving your strategic thinking isn’t difficult. The strategies to apply it can also be used during all sorts of activities, both in private and business lives. Development of a strategy consists of:Realizing where you are. You need to start by analyzing and understa nding your current position.Identifying the position, you want to be. The next step is about imagining the position you should be at any particular time. You want to be detailed on what the ideal position looks like and identify the positions you definitely need to avoid.Considering the essential elements in that position. Identify the key elements that matter in the future or the current position. These could be things such as the organizations values or growth figures.Creating an action plan between the current and the future. Your next step is about working out the steps and actions that need to be taken between ‘now’ and ‘then’ to guarantee success. Think in terms of actions, but also intermediate milestones that help measure success.LEADERSHIP THEORIESAlthough we’ve had leaders and leadership throughout the human history, people haven’t always been as focused on examining the differences in leadership. The real boom in leadership theories started in the 20th century , when more focus began pouring in to solving the great mysteries of effective and good leadership.Leadership theories are often categorized based on what the theory believes to be the defining trait or characteristic of the leader or the framework he or she uses. While there are a number of theories, the most popular theories include: the Great Man Theory, Trait Theories, Behavioral Theories, Contingency Theories, Transactional Theories, and Transformational Theories.Each of these categories has various leadership styles, which can slightly differ from each other, but nonetheless, belong to the core group. Let’s examine the theories and the assumptions they make about leadership.The Great Man TheoryThe Great Man Theory is among the oldest leadership theories and it evolved during the mid-19th century. The premise of the leadership theory was essentially the argument that great leaders are born with intrinsic traits. It argued leaders aren’t developed or taught, but you quite si mply either have the qualities and characteristics to be a great leader or you don’t. Furthermore, as the name implies, the leadership theory assumed only a man would have these intrinsic qualities â€" females are not born to lead.The theory became especially popular after Thomas Carlyle, a writer and teacher, published a book called On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History. In his book, Carlyle examined and compared leaders from history and wrote,“There needs not a great soul to make a hero; there needs a god-created soul which will be true to its origin; that will be a great soul!”To Carlyle and other people who supported the Great Man Theory, leadership was often something instilled by a god, with the leader being destined to achieve greatness.The Great Man Theory didn’t base its arguments on any scientific knowledge or research. In 1860, the theory attracted a lot of criticism from Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher, who began talking about the importance of environment and society in shaping leaders.Trait TheoriesThe trait theories are somewhat similar to the Great Man Theory in that they believe certain qualities in the leader will guarantee success in leadership. But unlike the Great Man Theory, trait theories don’t assume these are necessarily something people are born with or that only men can posses them. Instead, they understand that these can be taught or developed during one’s lifetime, providing everyone the possibility of being a leader.The trait model is essentially focused on answering the question “What are the qualities that make a good leader?” According to these theories, qualities such as intelligence, innovation, and a sense of responsibility are some of the characteristics you need to be an effective leader. The idea of certain traits guaranteeing better leadership results has remained popular to this day. Studies on leadership characteristics are commonly conducted, with similar traits often mentioned in the findings.However, it’s not ever been proven that by having a specific set of traits you would be guaranteed to be a good or a successful leader. An American psychologist Gordon Allport studied trait theories and found that personality traits are can be unreliable when measured. Furthermore, the relationship between a specific trait and its impact on leadership often vaguely explained.Behavioral TheoriesFrom the shortcomings of the trait theories, the focus shifted to behavioral theories. Instead of looking at the traits of a person, the aim is to discover what behaviors drive successful leadership. The question became “What are the actions and behaviors of a good leader?”One of the most influential sets of behavior leadership theories was developed in the 1930s by Kurt Lewin. He identified three distinctive leadership behaviors in terms of decision-making and guidance: authoritarian style, participative/democratic style, and delegation/laissez faire style. Lewin’s theori es are summarized in the graph below: Furthermore, the behavioral theories were either focused on the tasks or the people. The task-focused theory, often referred to as the Role Theory, examined how people’s behaviors change by the role they are doing. It argued that different roles might cause different reactions. On the other hand, the people-based theories considered the different levels of concern leaders show towards the subordinates and its impact on performance.Behavioral theories are popular because they understand leadership is something people can become better at. Despite this, the theory has lost some ground due to the realization that different behavioral styles don’t always suit every situation and while specific behavior might yield good results in certain circumstances, it can be catastrophic in others.Contingency TheoriesThe next step of evolution saw the question move to asking about the circumstances of leadership. “How does the situation influence effective leadership?” became the examination point for theories. The central argument of these theories was the idea that leadership styles’ effectiveness depends on the situation. It believes people who perform well in a specific situation, can actually perform badly in others.There is a certain similarity between contingency theories and trait theories. Both realize that personal characteristics are linked to the situations in which the leaders use their leadership. Certain traits, in essence, perform better under specific leadership styles.There have been a number of famous contingency theories, such as the Cognitive Resource theory and the Path-Goal theory. Perhaps the most common example of this style is the Situational Leadership developed by Hersey and Blanchard.Transactional TheoriesTransactional theories are also often referred to as exchange theories. These theories focus on the power and influence of leadership and the different ways leaders can leverage these to achieve objectives. The basis for the theory is the examination of the transactions between the leader and the followers, focusing on understanding how to build a positive and effective relationship.The transactional theories pay close attention to the motivations behind the actions. Therefore, the theories are interested in understanding the reward and punishment systems and their use in aligning the needs of the organization with the needs of the subordinate.While the transactional style has been popular and it can be efficient in creating meaningful relationships between the leader and the subordinates, it’s also attracted criticism. The most common objection to the style is its assumption that humans operate only to maximize pleasure or reward. It can sometimes dismiss other motivational factors altogether and just assume financial gain is all subordinates seek, for example.Transformational TheoriesThe final major category of leadership theories is transformational leadership. The focus of these theories is on the personal rel ationship the leader forges with the followers. The theories believe effective leadership is about transforming the followers into something different, aside from simply achieving the organizational vision. The leaders who can do this are charismatic and inspirational, creating a sense of trust that helps the followers feel more motivated.The popular transformational theories include James McGregor Burns’ transformational leadership theory, which was later developed further by Bass’ theory. Burns’ core ideas are:Approach is more holistic and supportiveHigh expectations for the groupLead by exampleCollaborate with the group to challenge and supportInspire group around its purpose and remind each group member of his worthBoth the transformational and the transactional leadership theories have also been developed and used as leadership styles, some of which we will delve into in the next section.LEADERSHIP STYLESThere are also plenty of different leadership styles. While leadersh ip theories are focused on understanding what makes leaders successful, the leadership styles focus specifically on the traits and behaviors of leaders under a specific theory. Therefore, the leadership theory often contains a number of different styles, as we saw in the examples above. Let’s now examine some of the most popular leadership styles.Lewin’s leadership stylesPsychologist Kurt Lewin developed his framework of leadership styles in the 1930s, providing the foundation for many other styles following later. According to Lewin, there are essentially three core leadership styles, each of which is shortly summarized below.Autocratic leadershipAutocratic or authoritarian leadership style emphasizes the role of the leader in terms of the decision-making process. The leader won’t involve or even consult the team when it comes to deciding the next course of action.The style is efficient in terms of making decisions, and can often be effective in crises or in circumstances whe re the leader has access to knowledge the subordinates don’t. Nonetheless, autocratic leadership style can also lead to high staff turnover.Democratic leadershipLewin’s second leadership style was the democratic model. Lewin’s style saw leaders under this framework still in charge of the final decisions, but instead of rejecting input from the subordinates, the leader seeks and encourages engagement. Therefore, the subordinates are more involved with the tasks or courses of action, even though they might not have actual power to decide.The democratic style can remove the issues of low morale and high turnover through the more participative approach. On the other hand, decisions can take a long-time to make and the subordinate’s ability to comprehend the intricacies of certain circumstances might not be equal.Laissez faire leadershipThe final leadership style Lewin identified was the laissez faire leadership. Under this framework, the subordinates are given the ultimate power to decide how they want to achieve the vision set forward by the leader. The leader’s role is essentially to provide the subordinates with the right resources and advice, if needed.Like the democratic leadership style, this can help increase job satisfaction, but the lack of structure can create problems within the organization. It also needs experienced and enthusiastic employees to work efficiently.Goleman’s 6 leadership stylesAfter Lewin’s three theories, a number of styles used these examples and developed the ideas further. In 2002, Daniel Goleman published a book Primal Leadership together with Richard Boyatzis and Annie Mckee in which he introduced six leadership styles.According to Goleman, each of these styles is based around the emotional state of the subordinate and leaders need to understand both the styles and the emotional responses in order to succeed. To Goleman, the six styles weren’t separate, but rather pieces of a puzzle the leader can use in order to ac hieve the desired outcome.Below is a short introduction to the six styles. Before you read them, check out this interview with Goleman regarding what makes a great leader. Visionary leadershipVisionary leadership is about creating a clear vision for the organization and ensuring everyone within the organization follows it. Goleman’s visionary leadership style is often referred to as the authoritative style, as it involves clear guidance on what needs to be done. But it also provides a lot of autonomy in terms of how subordinates can achieve the objectives. It can help organizations that are lacking in direction, but it has similar downsides as the laissez faire style.Coaching leadershipCoaching style emphasizes leadership development and it is almost like a charismatic leadership style. The leader’s role is to develop subordinates in their professional approach and help them improve their understanding of the strengths and weaknesses they face professionally.The aim is to create alignment with the goals of the organization and the subordinate. Coaching style can be great in motivating subordinates and improving the succession plan of the organization. On the other hand, the long-term focus can be problematic in any organization in the short-term, in terms of profitability or productivity.Affiliate leadershipThe aim of affiliate leadership is to bring harmony into the workplace and create an organization based on healthy relationships. The affiliate style is involved with conflict-resolution and the style is effective in overcoming disagreements, turning the focus back on the tasks.Democratic leadershipSimilar to Lewin’s theory, Goleman’s democratic style is about enhanced participation and active communication. The leader wants to get the subordinates involved and it seeks collaboration, instead of telling them what to do. It can be effective in terms of innovation and employee morale, but the style doesn’t always necessarily create the most efficien t systems for responding the issues swiftly enough.Pacesetting leadershipHigh standards and achievement of objectives are at the heart of Goleman’s pacesetting leadership style. The leadership puts short-term goals at the centre of its focus and uses them to drive up performance in the organization. The style often requires an element of quick rewards to motivate the subordinates to act and make quick returns.The style can be effective in the short-term, but it’s among the styles Goleman believes can potentially have the most negative impact on an organization.Commanding leadershipFinally, there is the coercive or commanding leadership style. The style’s near-military approach to leadership could also be referred to as the paternalistic style. The core message of the style is that the leader knows best and the subordinates’ role is to comply.Although it provides guidance and clear instructions on how to achieve the organizations objectives, the leader might come across as a ‘know-it-all’. The lack of input from subordinates and the coercive elements behind it can lead to lack of morale and low productivity.Specific leadership stylesThe above groups are often mentioned when leadership styles are discussed. As you saw, they provide a comprehensive analysis and basis to all sorts of different ways a leader can utilize emotions, decision-making and authority. But there are also popular styles that don’t necessarily fall under the styles identified by Goleman and Lewin. Here are a few of the most common of these styles.Charismatic leadershipCharismatic leadership has its foundations in the work of the German sociologist Max Weber. Weber wrote in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that charismatic leadership was “a special personality characteristic that gives a person…exceptional powers that result in the person being treated as a leader”. The style is focused on the leader’s traits and often his or her own ambitions. C harismatic leadership doesn’t emphasize the development of the subordinates as much as his or her expertise.Bureaucratic leadershipBureaucratic leadership style is another leadership style first coined by Max Weber. He identified the bureaucratic style as a rule-based system, where the emphasis is on achieving tasks. The style is based on ensuring the setting up of clear guidelines and procedures for work, and making sure subordinates follow these guidelines as closely as possible. It’s a style aimed at organizations dealing with enhanced safety risks or routine tasks. But the style’s problems arise from lack of flexibility and innovation.Servant leadershipThe servant leadership style is based on the writings of Robert Greenleaf. The ideas were further developed in the 1990s by Larry Spears. The basic premise of the style is an emphasis on the subordinate and his or her needs. The leader’s role is to provide support for the subordinates and help them achieve more professiona lly, as well as privately. The style benefits from its focus on values and ethics, but it can be particularly tricky to implement and doesn’t work well in situations where quick and strategic decisions need to be made.Authentic leadershipThe authentic leadership style is among the newest styles developed in the field. It was first coined by Dr Bruce Avolio and Fred Luthans. The style focuses on four key aspects of leadership: self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing and internalized moral perspective. The idea is that leaders and subordinates alike are supposed to promote behaviors that lead to positive actions and the development of the self.Situational leadershipDr Paul Hersey and Dr Ken Blanchard developed the situational leadership style, which falls under the category of the contingency theory. The style is based on the idea that leaders need to be aware of the different maturity levels of the subordinate and once they know it, select the right approach.Th e situational leadership style can be effective because it recognizes that not all subordinates or situations are alike. Nonetheless, it’s often considered more of a management style and can lead confusion within the workplace if the leader changes his or her approach from one to another.

She by H. Rider Haggard and Things Fall Apart by Chinua...

How are the roles and representations of females in the texts She by H. Rider Haggard and Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe presented? Given two different situations the women are in, the outcome is close to the same. Ayesha in She plays a role she created for herself in the Amahagger community, which can be contrasted with the culture the novel was written in by the author at the time. The women in Things Fall Apart are also as such represented by their culture, and can be compared to the female gender seen by their people as a distinct role. In both, the woman in these texts take on roles and functions of the cultures that they existed inside, which is important to understand why they behave as they do. In the novel ‘She’, Ayesha plays a role that she has cultivated for herself as the leader of an isolated culture. She behaves in the way that this kind of leader should, â€Å"How thinkest thou that I rule this people? I have but a regiment of guards to do my bidding, therefore it is not by force. It is by terror. My empire is a moral one† (Haggard 170). She says this to Holly when discussing her harsh punishment to the criminal Amahagger, showing that she has created a culture ruled by terror, and she acts accordingly to that. She will be not swayed to behave differently, since this is the role she holds herself in. Ayesha has come to expect complete submission to her rule, shown when she tries to get Ustane to leave Leo to heal him, saying, â€Å"’Why doth not that woman leave

His 145 Social Movements and Trends Essay - 698 Words

Social Movements and Trends University of Phoenix The American Experience Since 1945 - HIS/145 October 6, 2012 Richard Pinder Social Movements and Trends Women have always fought for the right of equality and control of their bodies. Many instances occurred throughout history that supported a woman’s fight for equal representation and fair legislation, especially for those who were impoverished. This paper will discuss three articles from 1968 to 1977 that outline women’s battles against the government and the legal system regarding abortion and sterilization. The article details instances in which the government pursued unlawful sterilization as a form of birth control, or denied public funding to poverty stricken women who†¦show more content†¦Not only was birth control taboo, but so was any form of unnatural contraception outside of the rhythm method. Sterilization was disapproved, and refused to women as a means of birth control by many hospitals at the time (New York Times, 1971). Women were discouraged from embracing the idea to exercise control relating to when they would stop having children. This proved to be yet another form of unfair judgment forced upon women by uninformed officials. The New York Civil Liberties Union was notified to help Mrs. Caparelli fight this method of inappropriate control by hospital officials (New York Times, 1971). Article Three: Abortion Cutoff Causing Hardship For Poor Women Around Country This final article explains that the government refuses to pay for abortions of women dependent upon public assistance (Roberts, 1977). Author Steven Roberts, wrote that because women on public assistance were refused financial assistance to acquire abortions, many opting for illegal abortions endangered their lives. Not only were facilities not up to code, but many performing the procedure were not medically approved to do so. As a result, these lower income women had a difficult time acquiring abortion services because many health care facilities refused to carry out the practice. In the end, many women accepted unwanted pregnancies, become more impoverished, and tried to make the best of unplanned situations.Show MoreRelatedThe Transcontinental Caucus Zone1425 Words   |  6 Pageseven with the abundance of natural resources available to the Caucus region, the area continues to fail to reach its economic potential due to political and social turmoil. Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaij an are of particular interest due to the nature of their territorial size and political influence in the Caucus region. The political and social stability of Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan are an essential part in determining the future of the Caucuses. 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A Hero Inside and Out the Court Free Essays

What does it takes to become a hero? As most people would answer, a hero should possess certain qualities including courage, loyalty, honesty, generosity, kindness and some other remarkable traits. In addition, a person could be regarded as a hero if he has done a significant contribution throughout his life. Needless to say, a hero is being noted for his significant achievements in any field of endeavor that he pursues. We will write a custom essay sample on A Hero Inside and Out the Court or any similar topic only for you Order Now Earvin â€Å"Magic† Johnson is a hero inside and out the court. His notable achievement and contributions made him as the recipient of the third Annual USA Today Hollywood Hero Award. Earvin â€Å"Magic† Johnson became popular primarily because of his basketball skills. His basketball career started when he was still in high school at the Michigan State where he led the team to championship in the year 1979. His skills as a player in the Michigan State continued to boost and qualified him to play at the National Basketball Association (NBA). Basketball became an important part of Magic Johnson’s life. His leadership quality in this field is just one of the traits which reflect his heroic deeds. In the year 1991, Johnson was diagnosed with the deadly AIDS virus (Pollock 426). This turning point in his life causes him to retire from playing basketball. But despite the fact that he was infected with the said virus, Johnson was never discouraged to continue with his life. As a matter of fact, he showed a lot of courage when he revealed to the world that he is an HIV-positive person. He was never ashamed of his condition but instead he used this as a way to help other people to become more aware of the virus. According to a research conducted by Pollock (426), the revelation of Magic Johnson had changed the attitude of people about AIDS and it also altered their behavior in order to avoid the virus. Johnson’s announcement had influence and informed most of the public about the fatalities of the virus. To some people, having the said virus would cause them to entertain negativities and stop them in believing with their purpose in life. But to Johnson, it was the reversed that happened. Upon knowing that he has the virus, he develops a foundation which aims to educate the youth as well as other men and women regarding AIDS (Tucker 1). He also pursues his dream of becoming a businessman despite of his condition. Johnson’s kindness and generosity was reflected through his several projects which aim to help and develop the potential of the black natives in business and leadership. He raised funds and lends his services to areas which are underserved. He had been generous and kind to those people in which the state seems to undermine. Johnson never gets tired of helping and sharing his blessings with other people especially those who are in need. Another act of kindness that Johnson showed was when the Hurricane Katrina hit the country. His Foundation, partnered with different grocery stores and drugstores, provided prescriptions and groceries to the victims of the said hurricane. The renowned basketball player and businessman also stated that he would find ways to generate jobs to those who have been displaced (Tucker 1). The works, attitude, traits and contribution of Magic Johnson justified his achievement as the recipient of the USA Today’s National Hero Award. He is indeed a man with good and heroic deeds. His activities and attitude sets a good example to the youth and an inspiration to those who seems to surrender in continuing the battle of life. Inside the court, he possess the leadership, positive attitude and loyalty to his teammates while outside the court, he showed his kindness, generosity, outmost concern and willingness in helping other people. An ordinary person with extraordinary qualities, that spells the name of Earvin â€Å"Magic† Johnson. Work Cited Pollock III, Philip H. â€Å"Issues, values, and critical moments: Did `Magic’ Johnson transform public opinion on AIDS?† American Journal of Political Science 38 (1994): 426. Tucker, Laura. â€Å"Business Hero: Magic Johnson.† 5 May 2008 ;http://www.myhero.com/myhero/hero.asp?hero=Magic_05;. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; How to cite A Hero Inside and Out the Court, Essay examples

Spread Of Islamic Civilation Essays - Islam, Arabs,

Spread Of Islamic Civilation DBQ #: Spread of Islamic Civilization From its beginnings in Arabia to its extensive empire encompassing the Middle East, parts of Asia, North Africa, and parts of Europe,paul duffy is fat the spread of Islam in the late 600s and 700s has drawn much study. The spread of Islamic beliefs and civilization have been described from a variety of perspectives. One way in which Islam spread was by the military conquests of the Muslims. Mohammed gave choices to non-Moslem peoples. They could either accept Islam or war would be waged against them and many lives would be taken. These threats by the Moslems caused many to convert and become followers of Allah. When a group defied these words they were punished severely by the Moslems. Moslem warrior were known to be fierce and were quite capable of forcing nations into Islam. There were other times when military conquests were made by the Moslems in order to gain riches, or booty, as opposed to punishing a group of peoples. These campaigns were not made with the intention of gaining permanent footholds but once the Moslems finished their raids it was inevitable that the areas would become part of the Arab empire. Not everyone was forced to follow Islam though. There were many people to whom the Islamic culture appealed. The promise to devout Moslems of a paradise with an abundant supply of water appealed to many desert-dwellers. The belief in equality among all followers of Islam appealed to many impoverished nations. These people willingly converted to Islam from their ancestral religions, causing the Islamic empire to grow. Then you have peoples like the Christians or Jews, who were respected by most Moslems because of their monotheistic beliefs. These two groups did have to pay, however, for the protection of the Moslems. If they did not pay, they too would be punished. Because although they were respected by some Moslems, there were others who believed that Christians were evil because they stifled the liberty of their followers and where Christianity prevailed, no other religion could be followed without persecution. It becomes clear that Islamic civilization spread to different areas by different means but the end result was the same: an extensive empire covering the Middle East, parts of Asia, North Africa, and parts of Europe. Islam still remains one of the most widely followed religions today. Political Science

Lenins April theses Essay Example

Lenins April theses Essay Example Lenins April theses Paper Lenins April theses Paper The twentieth century has been overshadowed by a clash of two ideologies, both representing a social, political and economic world order; one of the existing capitalist system, the other of revolutionary socialism. In April 1917 Vladimir Lenin, a revolutionary Marxist activist, writer and thinker, issued a series of directives on return from exile in an effort to subvert the energy of a revolution towards an uncompromising monolithic channel, famously known as the April Theses. This thesis influenced a further revolution in October by a coup detat establishing the Bolshevik party in power. This revolution established the worlds first Communist state, based on the ideas and theories of Karl Marx; challenging the existing capitalist status quo of the west. Becoming, further a catalyst and inspiration for socialist, as well as non-socialist movements across the globe. However, from its outset creating an ambiguous character, on the one hand utopian in nature, but on the other, tainted with the hallmark of authoritarianism and false premise1 From the latter half of the nineteenth century Russia saw large unrest2. Further, newly found social, political and economical moods, of mixed character began prevailing3, threatening the existing autocratic rule of the Tsar. Along with liberalism, anarchism, and conservatism, new ideas of socialism and change began to show colour. Years of unrest eventually lead to the abdication of the Tsar in 1917, followed by a power struggle. Although a provisional government was established, lead by Gregory Lvov4, in reality a dual power had emerged. One of the Soviet5 and one of the Duma6; the former the voice of the workers and peasants, and the latter representing society7, with a make-up of moderate socialists and liberals, operating with at least the passive approval of the Soviet8. Vladimir Lenin had inspired the creation of the Bolshevik party, with his pamphlet what is to be done? . He was ideologically a radical Marxist revolutionary, on return from exile he issued his theses, primarily to the Bolshevik party, taking into account the mood of the country; he called for all power to the soviets. He condemned the provisional government and urged no support for it, for it was bourgeois, deceiving the masses, calling the war9 imperialist. The war had largely been accepted as a means of defence, even within the socialist ranks. The Bolsheviks differed from the Cadets, Mensheviks and SRs, who had been to the left, but with the fall of the tsar, they had taken on the role of heirs11. Lenin argued for a revolutionary defeatism12. Instead he called for state power to be passed to the proletariat and poor sections of the peasants13; breaking from capitalist interests, as well as all annexations14. Describing the present period as a transitional stage, which was due to the shortcomings of the class conscious proletariat. Who allowed power to be at the hands of the bourgeois, foretelling a transition of power to the proletariat. Lenin recognised the established rights structure. The provisional government had pioneered a structure of rights and liberties for the first time in Russias history, but the agrarian question had been postponed15, to which Lenin became an opportunist. Indeed Lenins doctrine of a class struggle and the idea of democracy as nothing more than a smoke screen lead him to banishing the idea of parliamentary republic, which he called would be a retrograde step; the only acceptable form of government would be a union of soviets. In reality the bourgeoisie had tried to master democracy by associating with it and taking charge of it16. Lenin demanded the dismantlement of the state structure and bureaucracy; something he later did, with the creation of his own secret police, the cheka and the red terror campaign. Ironically he had called for this as a utopian alternative, to the existing system he would have the masses envisage. In agrarian policy he called for a shift in emphasis, all landed estates should be confiscated and put at the disposal agrarian soviets under nationalisation, as well as the nationalisation of all banks. Lenin was a proponent of Hilfedings concept, who believed that control of the chief banks in the country would make it possible to regulate the economy17; although he realised its inadequacies, and introduced the NEP once in power. He further introduced the concept of socialism, a central theme in Marxs ideas, calling not for its immediate introduction, but only in order to control production and distribution. He ended his speech with several party tasks, a change in the partys name and an international outlook. Unlike Stalin later, who would advocate socialism in one country, Lenin believed in an international idea of socialism which would overthrow capitalism; and for some time saw passive socialist movements across Europe. Although kalinin was of the opinion nothing was new in Lenins theses, from that of an earlier party manifesto, Lenin did however add firm direction. Until this point many senior Bolsheviks were opposed to radical change, including, Stalin and Kamenev; he had a powerful drive with an obsessive belief in revolution18. Lenin promised Peace, bread, land and workers control,with slogans of all power to the soviets; the prospect from escaping from the deadlock of a powerful state became too irresistible in the social and political dynamic of Russia. All hopes of a democratic system thus became a far reality, as the Petrograd Soviet would begin to gain popular support and authority19. The fact that Russia had failed to make sufficient progress, economically, politically and socially became all too apparent. Further, the provisional governments coalition began to expose differences on key issues such as the economic system, land and the workforce. The years to come saw the fall of the provisional government, with the Bolsheviks taking control followed by almost three years of civil war, with the other factions taking arms up against the Bolsheviks. Lenin showed no regard for his fellow citizens, mercilessly crushing any opposition. Marxist theory of the withering away of capitalism, the idea of the pheasants as conservative class hardly fitted Marxist theory. Lenin had to re-write his revolutionary script to fit backward Russia into a revolution before the West, and give the large majority of the peasants a role20, as well as the soldiers, whom he needed for vital support. Although Carr21 describes him as self conscious, it seems he was obsessed with ideology in pursuit of a utopian society, periodically becoming pragmatic, realising Marxist theories and the economic works of Hildferding as inconsistent .As Valentines memoirs suggest a man with much personal charm, but with narrow intellectual horizon22. He laid down instead a foundation for authoritarianism, which would continue for decades to come. The communist state represented the opposite of political thinking to the west (although adopting socialist elements), Marxist-Leninism claimed universal validity, inspiring revolutionary activity universally, and so a challenge to the west; the Berlin wall, eventually becoming a visible polarization. However with the fall of the USSR, and its former members reversal from friend to foe, clearly highlights the triumph of capitalism and western democracy. Bibliography Carr, E. H. The Russian Revolution: From Lenin to Stalin 1917-1929. Hampshire and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Coates, T (editor). The Russian Revolution 1917. Norwich: stationary office. 2000. Gaida, F. A. Revolution, power, and the Bourgeoisie. Russian Studies in History. 2003, vol.41(no 4),p 9-30. Hosking, G. Russia and the Russians. London: Penguin, 2002.

How to Develop and Organize a Classification Essay

How to Develop and Organize a Classification Essay Classification is a method of developing an essay by arranging people, objects, or ideas with shared characteristics into particular classes or groups. After you have settled on a topic for a classification essay*  and explored it through various prewriting strategies, you should be ready to attempt a first draft. Here is how to develop and organize a five-paragraph classification essay. Introductory Paragraph In your introduction, clearly identify your subject - in this case, the group you are classifying. If you have narrowed your subject in any way (for example, types of bad drivers, rock guitarists, or annoying moviegoers), make this clear from the start. You may also want to provide some specific descriptive or informative details to attract the interest of your readers and suggest the purpose of the essay. Finally, include a thesis sentence (usually at the end of the introduction) that briefly identifies the main types or approaches that youre about to examine.   Heres an example of a short but effective introductory paragraph to a classification essay: Its a warm evening in July, and all across the country Americans are gathering to watch a game of professional baseball. Armed with hot dogs and cold drinks, they stroll to their seats, some in grand stadiums, others in cozy minor-league parks. But no matter where the game is played, you will find the same three types of baseball fan: the Party Rooter, the Sunshine Supporter, and the Diehard Fan. Notice how this introduction creates certain expectations. The specific details provide a setting (a ballpark on a warm evening in July) in which we expect to see the various fans described. In addition, the labels assigned to these fans (the Party Rooter, the Sunshine Supporter, and the Diehard Fan) lead us to expect descriptions of each type in the order theyre given. A good writer will go on to fulfill these expectations in the body of the essay. Body Paragraphs Begin each body paragraph with a topic sentence that identifies a particular type of approach. Then  illustrate each type with specific details. Arrange your body paragraphs in whatever order strikes you as clear and logical - say, from the least effective approach to the most effective, or from the most common type to the least familiar (or the other way around). Just make sure that the order of your body paragraphs matches the arrangement promised in your thesis sentence. Here, in the body of the essay on baseball fans, you can see that the writer has fulfilled the expectations set up in the introduction. (In each body paragraph, the topic sentence is in italics.) The Party Rooter goes to games for the hot dogs, the gimmicks, the giveaways, and the companionship; hes not really that interested in the ballgame itself. The Party Rooter is the sort of fan who shows up on Buck-a-Brew Night, often with a gang of fellow partiers. He cracks jokes, hurls peanuts at the team mascot, applauds the exploding scoreboard, blasts an electronic horn whenever he pleases- and occasionally nudges a companion and asks, Hey, whos winning? The Party Rooter often wanders out of the park in the sixth or seventh inning to continue his celebrations in the car on the way home.The Sunshine Supporter, usually a more common type than the Party Rooter, goes to the park to cheer on a winning team and bask in its glory. When the home side is on a winning streak and still in contention for a playoff spot, the stadium will be packed with this sort of fan. As long as her team is winning, the Sunshine Supporter will be roaring at every play, waving her pennant and shouting out th e names of her heroes. However, as the name implies, the Sunshine Supporter is a fickle fan, and her cheers quickly turn to boos when a hero strikes out or drops a line drive. She will stay around until the end of the game to celebrate a victory, but should her team fall a few runs behind, shes likely to slip out to the parking lot during the seventh-inning stretch.​Diehard Fans are also strong supporters of the local team, but they go to the park to watch good baseball, not just to root for a winner.  More attentive to the game than other fans, Diehards will study the stance of a power hitter, note the finesse of a quick fielder, and anticipate the strategy of a pitcher who has fallen behind in the count. While the Party Rooter is chugging a beer or dropping wisecracks, Diehards may be filling in a scorecard or commenting on a players RBI tally over the past few months. And when a Sunshine Supporter boos an opposing player for tagging out a local hero, Diehards may be quie tly applauding the expert moves of this enemy infielder. No matter what the score is, Diehard Fans remain in their seats until the last batter is out, and they may still be talking about the game long after its over.​ Notice how the writer uses comparisons to ensure cohesion in the body of the essay. The topic sentence in both  the second and third paragraphs refers to the preceding paragraph. Likewise, in the third body paragraph, the writer draws explicit contrasts between the Diehards and the other two types of baseball fans. Such comparisons not only provide smooth transitions from one paragraph to the next but also reveal the sympathies of the writer. He begins with the type of fan he likes the least and ends with the one he most admires. We now expect the writer to justify his attitudes in the conclusion. Concluding Paragraph The concluding paragraph gives you an opportunity to draw together the various types and approaches you have been examining in the body of the essay. You may choose to offer a final brief comment on each one, summarizing its value or its limitations. Or you may want to recommend one approach over the others and explain why. In any case, make sure that your conclusion clearly emphasizes the purpose of your classification. In the concluding paragraph to Baseball Fans, consider whether the author has been successful in his effort to tie his observations together. Professional baseball would have trouble surviving without all three types of fans. The Party Rooters provide much of the money that owners need to hire talented players. The Sunshine Supporters bring a stadium to life and help boost the morale of the home team. But only the Diehard Fans maintain their support all season long, year in and year out. By late September in most ballparks, enduring chilly winds, rain delays, and sometimes humiliating losses, only the Diehards remain. Notice how the writer hooks his conclusion back to the introduction by contrasting the chilly night in September with the warm evening in July. Connections such as this help to unify an essay and give it a sense of completeness. As you develop and organize your draft, experiment with various strategies, but keep this basic format in mind: an introduction that identifies your subject and the different types of approaches; three (or more) body paragraphs that rely on specific details to describe or illustrate the types; and a conclusion that draws your points together and makes the overall purpose of the classification clear.

Maintaining competence in nursing practice Essay - 1

Maintaining competence in nursing practice - Essay Example I believe that this is an important part of my nursing practice because it would help ensure that my patients would essentially be protected from harm. It is important for me to know about the legal requirements in the administration of medications. These legal requirements are important in order to avoid medication errors, to manage adverse drug reactions, to manage side effect, and to ensure the proper administration of the drug (Garrett and Craig, n.d). It is important for me to improve my legal knowledge about the proper administration of drugs and to know the proper prescribing, compounding, dispensing, administration, education, monitoring, and use of the drug (NCCMERP, 2007). I need to enhance my dispensation skills for these medicines because I would likely encounter and be asked to dispense medicines with similar packaging, medicines which are not commonly prescribed or commonly used, or medications which many patients are allergic to, and those which require testing to secu re proper therapeutic levels (Hughes and Blegen, n.d). Medications which also sound alike are possible causes for errors. These risks are part of the practice and represent areas which I need to focus on. I also need to consider the different â€Å"Rights† in medication administration in order to prevent medication errors. These â€Å"Rights† include the following: the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route, and the right time (Fogarty and McKeon, 2005). By mastering these aspects of drug administration, I would be complying with the minimum legal requirements for drug administration. It is also essential for me to participate in case review activities because these case review activities can help in the assessment and evaluation of cases and activities within the nursing practice. Each activity and case

Customer Strategy Development Project Research Paper

Customer Strategy Development Project - Research Paper Example According to FedEx Company Management, International Corporations are the most profitable customer groups. The group consists of international companies who purchase products from different countries to the destination industries. FedEx provides excellent transportation services for such products. Most international corporation customers are modern companies between ages less than 30 years old. Moreover, the international corporations have an extremely high-income level ranging from &50 billion Per Annum. The purchasing habit of this group is recommendable because they make massive purchases for their raw materials that require efficient transportation to the designated areas (FedEx Corporation, 2013). E-Commerce Companies forms the next group of companies served by FedEx. FedEx Company offers various services to E-Commerce companies such as mail delivery, goods transportation both locally and internationally. E-Commerce companies are of any age, and the income levels range between $ 20 billion to $30 billion per Annum. FedEx Company customer profile also caters to individual customers. Most people prefer sending emails, parcels, and other vital information via courier companies. FedEx offers services to individual adult customers over 18 years of age. In addition, individual customers can be of any sex and the income levels have less significant provided the person meets the charge requirements. The most targeted customers under the international corporations' segment include Computer and technology industries like Apple, Google, Max, and Sony. On the other hand, FedEx targets most E-Commerce companies and the rapidly growing small businesses all over the world because they offer excellent business to the company. FedEx has entered into the collaboration with OfficeMax to place its self-service drop boxes in all OfficeMax stores across the nation.

Glorious Sceptre :: essays research papers

The Immortal Sceptre Within the Iliad Homer portrays through association and symbolism the sceptre as a representation of divine power. Agamemnon is the nominal owner of this sceptre, on which much emphasis is placed in the early stages of the poem. This relic, a sceptre once owned by Zeus, has a kingly and divine past and, as a result, is a symbol of authority, power, and recognition within the kingdom of Greece. Homer’s discussion of the sceptre in Books I and II serves to elucidate these characteristics of the sceptre. In the earlier stages of book II, Homer establishes the godly and noble history of the sceptre. Through a slight digression in the story line, Homer gives the reader a brief overview of its former owners: "Hephaistus gave it to Zeus the king, the son of Kronos, and Zeus in turn gave it to the courier Argeiphontes, and lord Hermes gave it to Pelops, driver of horses, and Pelops again gave it to Atreus, the shepherd of the people. Atreus dying left it Thyestes of the rich flocks, and Thyestes left it in turn to Agamemnon to carry and to be lord of many islands over all Argos. (II, 102-109)" In naming Hephaistus, Zeus, Hermes, and the kings of Mycenae, Homer describes a legacy that enhances the sceptre’s image as a token of influence and power. Moreover, it is important to note that the sceptre was not conceived by a mortal, but rather by Hephaistus. Using the wood from a living tree in the mountains, he constructed an immortal device for Zeus. Hephaistus’ creation of the sceptre both bolsters the notion of the sceptre’s divinity, and strengthens its image as a symbol of influence and recognition. In Book I of the poem, Achilles takes oath upon the sceptre. In his oath, Achilles states his intent to withdraw from the army and swears that the Achaians will one day regret their irreverence. However, before anything is sworn, Homer has Achilles describe the sceptre by stating that it "never again will bear leaf nor branch, now that it has left behind the cut stump in the mountains, nor shall it ever blossom again, since the bronze blade stripped bark and leafage" (I, 233-237). Achilles emphasizes the sceptre’s imperishability and endurance as a symbol. Lacking life and therefore lacking the prospect of death, the sceptre is, in a sense, immortal, giving reason for its divine connotations. Glorious Sceptre :: essays research papers The Immortal Sceptre Within the Iliad Homer portrays through association and symbolism the sceptre as a representation of divine power. Agamemnon is the nominal owner of this sceptre, on which much emphasis is placed in the early stages of the poem. This relic, a sceptre once owned by Zeus, has a kingly and divine past and, as a result, is a symbol of authority, power, and recognition within the kingdom of Greece. Homer’s discussion of the sceptre in Books I and II serves to elucidate these characteristics of the sceptre. In the earlier stages of book II, Homer establishes the godly and noble history of the sceptre. Through a slight digression in the story line, Homer gives the reader a brief overview of its former owners: "Hephaistus gave it to Zeus the king, the son of Kronos, and Zeus in turn gave it to the courier Argeiphontes, and lord Hermes gave it to Pelops, driver of horses, and Pelops again gave it to Atreus, the shepherd of the people. Atreus dying left it Thyestes of the rich flocks, and Thyestes left it in turn to Agamemnon to carry and to be lord of many islands over all Argos. (II, 102-109)" In naming Hephaistus, Zeus, Hermes, and the kings of Mycenae, Homer describes a legacy that enhances the sceptre’s image as a token of influence and power. Moreover, it is important to note that the sceptre was not conceived by a mortal, but rather by Hephaistus. Using the wood from a living tree in the mountains, he constructed an immortal device for Zeus. Hephaistus’ creation of the sceptre both bolsters the notion of the sceptre’s divinity, and strengthens its image as a symbol of influence and recognition. In Book I of the poem, Achilles takes oath upon the sceptre. In his oath, Achilles states his intent to withdraw from the army and swears that the Achaians will one day regret their irreverence. However, before anything is sworn, Homer has Achilles describe the sceptre by stating that it "never again will bear leaf nor branch, now that it has left behind the cut stump in the mountains, nor shall it ever blossom again, since the bronze blade stripped bark and leafage" (I, 233-237). Achilles emphasizes the sceptre’s imperishability and endurance as a symbol. Lacking life and therefore lacking the prospect of death, the sceptre is, in a sense, immortal, giving reason for its divine connotations.

How Class and Classicism in America Shaped and Defined American Politics and Government Essay

Class and Classism is a significant dilemma in several parts of the world. Classism was initially created by Servius Tullius in one of the six orders that he used to divide the Roman people for taxation purposes. Classism represents a discriminatory attitude based on the distinctions derived from economic or social classes. Perhaps, the most elusive socio-economic and political ills confronting U.S today is the issue of class. The concerns and problems of class struggle cut across the social dimensions of ethnicity, race, and political affiliation, and educational background, national and geographic origin. Domhoff, (1977) defined class as the status a group, or an individual achieves by virtue of its economic strength, the power to affect change and the influence of other groups in its community of choice. Therefore, the issues surrounding class and classism through hierarchy of â€Å"Haves† and the â€Å"Have nots†, the promise, myth, and dogma of individualism in U.S , and the systematic oppression of subordinate societies have brought myriad changes in the politics and governance of United States. Domhoff, (1977) argues that class is not a new phenomenon. Nor class within the policy. Thus, class within the American society has existed for centuries. Since the beginning of men, you have always had the have and have nots. Association of class within the United States was in existence prior to the creation of the Declaration of Independence, United States Constitution and U.S. Federal Bureaucracy. It started when the British Monarchy set up their government and society structures their colonies.This paper will discuss and review how the Founding Fathers being the lesser member of the smaller group, which for the purpose of the paper are defined as the ruling class, were able to collectively shape and develop social and political agendas through collective action, and as a result, disenfranchised the greater members of society. Furthermore, this pa per explores how the Collective Action of Groups Theory (Olson, 1979) helped to shape the discourse and thoughts of the Founding Fathers on social and political ideologies, which in turn, played a critical role in the creation of the United States. Moreover, more importantly, how the Founding Father’s ideologies on class impacted individuals within particular classes views on their own political affiliations and the United States Government. Defining Class in America’s Society When questioned about the needs of the working class individuals during 1988 presidential campaign, George Bush insisted that class was a â€Å"European thing† and that the Americans would never be divided by class. Although the critic, that views America as a dominant culture, observes that it is a classless society, most Americans recognize that deep class separates and divides them. The structure of class has been interwoven with the culture of the United States and its political system for well over two centuries, and has shaped the way in which people view their place in society and make their political decisions. The leading Founders thoughts and ideas have played a significant role for this to occur. The Founding Fathers were the ruling class at the time of the when the Declaration of Independence was written, the American Revolution was fought, the enactment of the U.S. Constitution and the development U.S. Federal Bureaucracy. The ruling class is defined as a social c lass of a given society that decides upon and sets that society’s political policy by mandating that there is one such particular class in the given society, and then appointing itself as that class (Domhoff, 1977). Karl Marx in his writings defined these men as distinguished and the educated who were dominant in their communities and states, and also prominent in national affairs (Oliver, 1984). This would explain why as a collective group, these men were able to achieve a certain level of success and in turn dominate society. One of the most well documented correlations in social science are the positive correlation between socioeconomic status and all forms of political and organizational participation (Oliver, 1984). This also explains why the Founding Fathers voted only to allow white male property owners the right to vote, whom at the time made up 10 to 16 percent of the nation’s population (Rowen, 2014). Their decision to not allow poor white men, women, and min orities the right to vote aligns with Olson’s Collective Action Theory. As the small group, they made a decision to block a public right from the majority. Voting in most terms would be considered a non-rivalrous public good (Olson, 1971). Rosenberg, (2008) writes that in economics, rivalry is a characteristic of a good. A good can be placed along a continuum ranging from rivalrous (rival) to non-rival. The range is based on consumption and the price to produce the good. Since voting like the air was a considered a freedom, they should have quickly decided to make it a non-rivalrous public good. However, by blocking the right to vote from 90 percent of the people in the country the Founding Fathers made it rivalries (Zweig, 2000). Whereas, they placed a cost on voting that owned land.These men may have disagreed and to an extent attempted to disassociate their ideologies and politics from the British Monarchy, but their actions and thoughts conveyed a strong similarity. By disenfranchising 90 percent of society, they cast themselves and their peers as th e ruling and dominating class. However, Zweig (2000) observes that in terms of experiences with other cultures, this is all they knew. Dr. Morris Massey, head of the psychiatry department at a Texas university, defines this behavior as â€Å"You Are What You Were When You Were Then† (Massey & Magnetic Video Corporation, 1976). Massey’s theory is that identity is primarily determined by the things that affect life up to the age of 10. Their behavior and how they made their decisions as a collective group also aligns with Henri Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory that states a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Tajfel, (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team, etc.), which people belonged to, was an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. Since these men experienced the rule of British Monchary that was entrenc hed in class for a vast majority of their life, it is highly probable they would create a system that placed individuals within a class. This would explain why these men used land as the defining factor. This provided them with a determining factor to define a class among all people.You would also wonder how these men could function in such a myopic way as it related to freedom and the rights of others? How could they outwardly caste others in a system that they so disliked? Their behavior at the time could be attributed to their socialization. Arnet, (1995) describes socialization as the process in which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the social world that are culture in which they live. Culturally, these men were accustomed to women being in subservient roles, minorities being used as slaves, and poor white people being indentured servants. Thomas Jefferson stated â€Å"The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation for which the public is not prepared, nor Ià ¢â‚¬  (Arnet, 1995). His sentiments at the time were most likely not an anomaly, but the norm. These men were socialized to believe their rights were above others (except for the ruling class of Britan). A similar message was conveyed in James Madision’s Federalist 10. Madison observed that the diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests (Arnet, 1995). The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties (Massey, 1976). However, most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government (Massey, 1976). In his writings, Madison is acknowledging and justifying a class system based on assets and wealth. He is very clear on his position, in which the government is set-up to protect the owners of property and in turn, their wealth, which is interesting because this is counter opposite to Paine’s opinion on non-equalizers (family, land, and money) (Massey, 1976).Jefferson and Madisions behavior at the time align with Arnett’s definition of narrow socialization. Arnett defines narrow socialization as holding obedience and conformity to the highest values and discourage deviation from cultural expectations—again, not just through family socialization but through other sources of socialization as well. Based on the behavior of the Founding Fathers they seem more committed to conformity and obedience rather than challenging and open thinking environment. The creation of the U.S. Constitution is a perfect example. In creating the U.S. Constitution, the Founders sought to limit the power of the federal government and to protect (not grant) the natural rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Their focus and behavior were all based on their past experiences with the British Monarchy (Zinn, 2003). In reality, they were rebelling against a system that controlled and disenfranchised them, but they went forth in constructing a system that disenfranchised almost 90 percent of its citizens and empowered 10 percent (based on the voting law). Ideology of Classism Kadi, (1996) defined classism as a prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies, and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class. A person’s economic class is neither real bad. It is just a reality. However, what is of interests is how individuals within their class act and behave as it relates to their class standing. Iwith reference to Olson’s theory of the Founding Fathers, it is apparent their small group over several years acted to further their interest (Kadi, 996). This has been clearly documented prior to, during, and after the American Revolutionary War. This was accomplished by strategically defining and casting people within certain classes, and using the government structure along with political and cultural strategies to achieve their objectives. This behavior aligns with Olson and his thoughts on the ability of smaller groups to manipula te larger groups. And through this manipulation the larger group would bear a disproportionate share of the burden (Barrow, 2014).According to Horowitz (2003), the Founding Fathers of the United States were clearly influenced by the British Monarchy, and their caste system. Class was a staple part of the British way of life. The British society was divided into three main groups of classes: upper class, middle class, and the lower or working class. The upper classes consisted of people with inherited wealth and include some of the oldest families, with many of them being titled aristocrats. The upper classes were defined by their title, but also by their education, and their pastimes which included the traditional sporting life involving hunting, shooting and fishing, as well as a great deal of horse riding for both leisure and as a competitive pursuit. The middle classes were the majority of the population and included industrialists, professionals, businesspeople and shop owners. And, the working class people were mostly agricultural, mine and factory workers (Barrow 2014).Because of the British Monarchy role in the history of the United States, it was a natural evolution for the Founding Fathers to borrow and blend new and old concepts pertaining to class (Daniel Carpenter). This is not to say that some of the Founding Fathers were not against the concept of class. Rather, it clearly highlighted in the writings of Thomas Paine. Thomas Paine published his book Rights of Man, in 1791, and stated that all men were equal and any non-equalizer such as money, power, prestige or titles, were wrong. Paine, (1791) felt that governments should reflect social equality; however, it was clear in the creation of the U. S. Federal Bureaucracy that the equalizers that Paine and others were against became and still exists in the United States politics and government.The Influence of Class in America’s HistoryZinn, (2003) asserts that the review of American history pr ovides insights on why the nation is obsessed with wealth and class. The Founding Fathers served as an example for the lower class on how they used their Collective Action as a group to gain benefits and control over the country. The Founding Fathers clearly knew what they represented to the general public. Therefore, they used their wealth and class to manipulate and gain more power (Zinn, 2003). This manipulation of power was happening prior, during and after the revolutionary war. Zinn in his book â€Å"History is a Weapon† inscribes tha the individual that initially got recruited to the colonial militia were overall â€Å"hallmarks of respectability or at least of full citizenship† in their communities (Zinn, 2003). However, desperation resulted to recruiting fewer whites that were respectable in the society. According to Kim and National Bureau of Economic Research, (2007) the study of Massachusetts and Virginia provided for drafting â€Å"strollers† (vagra nts) into the colonial militia. Indeed, observations by Kim et al. (2007) concludes that the military became a place of promise for the powerless and subordinate individuals, which might rise to the rank, get financial rewards and alter their social status. The behavior of the Founding Fathers also aligns with cultural hegemony theory that describes the domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class, who manipulate the culture of that society, the beliefs, explanations, perceptions, values, and mores, so that their ruling-class worldview becomes the worldview that is imposed and accepted as the cultural norm; as the universally valid dominant ideology that justifies the social, political, and economic status quo as natural, inevitable, perpetual and beneficial for everyone, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefit only the ruling class (National Archives, 2014). This ability to control and dupe the working and lower class was not by accident. The imagery of freedom, opportunity and wealth is a strong influence that has been used for centuries to induce the poor into submission. This was clearly the case during the Revolutionary War. Zinn documents a soldier’s response to why he joins the war. â€Å"I was a Shoemaker, & got my living by my Labor. When this Rebellion came on, I saw some of my Neighbors got into Commission, who were no better than myself. I was very ambitious, & did not like to see those Men above me. T was asked to enlist, as a private Soldier †¦ I offered to enlist upon having a Lieutenants Commission; which was granted. I imagined myself now in a way of Promotion: if I was killed in Battle, there would be an end of me, but if any Captain was killed, I should rise in Rank, & should still have a Chance to rise higher. These Sir! were the only Motives of my entering into the Service; for as to the Dispute between Great Britain & the Colonies, I know nothing of it †¦,† (Zinn, 2003). The question could be asked if this man were an anomaly. However, it is hard to dispute when you have Founding Fathers writing about the lack of commitment and passion from the soldiers. At the time, Alexander Hamilton was an aide to George Washington when he wrote:†. . . our countrymen have all the folly of the ass and all the passiveness of the sheep†¦. They are determined not to be free†¦. If we are saved, France and Spain must save us† (Hamilton, 2003).It was obvious the passion and commitment for change were not as significant for the poor and underclass. The soldiers were consistently quitting. Founding father John Adams’ estimated a third opposed, a third in support, a third neutral. So the nation was not squarely behind the decisions being made by the elite ruling class (Horowitz, 2003). So early in the history of this country’s history the various category/ groups had differing opinions on the directions of the country. One of the ways tha t the power owners or the ruling class addressed this issue was interesting, and also shows how the ruling class was committed to cultural hegemony as a collective group. Zinn, (2003) indicates that military conflict, by dominating everything in its time, made individuals take sides, lessened other issues, and forced people onto the revolution regime whose independence interests were very unclear. Additionally, Zinn believed that the political elites that handles power learned through the generations-consciously or not-that war provides them security against interior trouble (Cone, 1991). This mindset of the Founding Fathers during the revolutionary war is an example of how the Constructivist Theory works. According to him, the Constructivist Theory provides that the mechanism of learning is an active process characterized by the creation of meaning from diverse familiarities (Cone, 1991). Through their early experience with the war, it was clear that all of the white men were not functioning as a collective group. As the Collective Action Theory states, some individuals will support an initiative, some will sit on the fence, and some will not support it all. And, through rethinking how to get the non-participants involved through constructivist thinking the Founding Fathers begin to implement new tactics, such as force of serving in the military.Through military force prepara tion, power owners of the high class found a procedure of pushing neutral people into the periphery. For instance, in Connecticut, Cone (1991) observes, a law was passed that required military service of all males between sixteen and sixty. This he reports omitted certain Yale students and faculty, Negroes, government officials, Indians, ministers, and mulattos. Therefore, when an individual was put on duty, he or she could provide a substitute or get fined 5 pounds to abscond the duty. Consequently, when a total of eighteen men failed to report to military duty, they got jailed. However, they could only be released after pledging to fight in the war. Perhaps what appeared like military force democratization in modern times shows up as a completely different issue (Cone, 1991). That is, an approach of forcing massive defiant individuals to associate themselves with the national cause, and finally believe in it.The Constitutionalization and Classism in AmericaJensen, (2012) writes th at during the United States Bicentennial Constitution, it is accurate to argue on the political and economic wisdom of the United States Founding Fathers. Historically, there is no constitution in the world that established successful and durable economic democracy than the United States. However, economy is presented in the political inclinations, and the enormous success of the economy of the United States was independent of the political system. Indeed, the current economic issues in the United States might as a result of the failure of the political wisdom to follow the guides of the founding fathers based on the concept of class. Jensen, (2012) further elaborates that the American Founding Fathers developed the constitution in order to serve the economic interest of a specific class of individuals, which are the capitalists. According to him, the Constitution documented by the founding fathers was based on the concept of class as it protected the economic rights of the capitali sts. Multiple aspects of the constitution mention aspects of economic and financial matters that were put in place to secure economic functioning that would benefit the investors (Jensen, 2012).Furthermore, the Founding Fathers wrote the Constitution to provide a favorable national economic environment in which businesses could thrive. To counter this, a central authority, the United States Congress, were authorized to control the foreign commerce and interstate, the coinage of money, federal tax collection, patents and copyrights and the defense of states. Besides, the constitution supported sanctity of contracts, property rights and the due process of law. Illustratively, the Supreme Court decisions, for instance, Dartmouth v. Woodward (1819) provided that the judiciary supported a business friendly environment (Jensen, 2012). Although the United States Constitution assisted in easing the concern of the business majority, it did not provide complete economic issues of the United S tates. Therefore, a national monetary system was founded to control the issues of debts. As such, the capitalists were provided with a favorable environment for conducting business that developed power over the subordinate society.In the modern society, Bishaw and Semega (2008) observes, the political campaigns provide a significant problem of financial resources. The technological changes have demanded that the politicians raise lots and lots of money. Not surprisingly, Young (2000) further writes that a system that heavily relies on financial contributions has tilted towards organizations and individuals that can give big. As such, the politicians get linked to the wealthy individuals or the capitalists in the society to provide financial sponsorship of their candidature. In turn, the politicians pass bills and laws that suit the interest of the few wealthy dignitaries in the American society. Indeed, politics in U.S has followed the footsteps of the constitution that protects the economic rights of few high-class individuals in the society that in turn fund politicians. As such, class in the American society continues to emerge with discrimination observable in the political interests and representations (Young, 2000). The issue of class has made America a nation where politicians serve the interest of the capitalist that forms the minority of the population hence ignoring 90 percent of the electorate. Furthermore, Arcs and Zimmerman, (2008) indicates that excessive reliance on the electorate system on financial capital also determines what kind of interests gets heard and what kind of policies are passed. Classism according to Arcs et al. (2008) appears to control politics in America with the capitalists funding politicians. Therefore, as money controls politics, the low social class hardly influences politics by voting or contacting their legislators that later amplifies the capitalist influences. Domhoff, (1977) highlights that the Commerce Clause of the Supreme Court provides opinion reflecting an apparent effort to modernize and rationalize the analytical framework for delineating the implied constraints imposed by the state legislation. According to him, the constitution articulated a set of coherent criteria controlling the validity of the state taxes on interstate commerce. Furthermore, the constitution discarded inconsistent doctrine with the set standards. In the context of state regulation, the constitution enunciated meaningful decisional principles governing commerce. According to the US Constitution, the commerce clause is a power granted by Congress, but not an express limitation on the state’s power to regulate the economy. However, the wealthy individuals often have the final say in the taxation policies that favors their business interests (Domhoff, 1977). As such, classism has made the wealthy individuals get heard in making policies such as taxation policies that altogether re-shapes the governance and polit ics of America. Therefore, the constitutional wisdom of the Founding Fathers is present today, and it has promoted classism that in turn affects the politics and governance in America. Class Today in America The primary institutionalization basis of classism is the economic system, Gilbert and Kahl (1993) indicates. Capitalism, Gilbert, and colleague, observes get structured based on classes that in turn influence the politics and governance of America. According to Gilbert et al. (1993), the three key institutions, that generate classes, are hierarchical organizations, private ownership, and capitalist division of labor. These institutions produce class-based systems of political dominion and subordination between the managers and the managed, the owners and those who do not own, and the professionals and these without professional credentials. Thus, the political dominion by these dominant groups means that the politicians must serve their economic interest in order to achieve their financial support. The economic production of the dominant groups requires government policies that emphasize on security and good governance to enable them reproduce their modes of production and distribut ion.Fast forward 239 years, and Americans are still grappling with class as it relates to all areas of society. It is still a challenge to address and discuss class as it relates to government, politics, and race within the country. This challenge can partly be laid at the hands of the Founding Fathers. Through cultural hegemony, they manipulated society to believe that â€Å"all† citizens were created equally and had a voice in the decisions being made within government (Gilbert and Kahl, 1993). But, within the same space they systematically defined what voices mattered by only allowing landowners the right to vote. This simplistic move set forth and defined the influence of class in the terms of money, assets, and influence. This also sets up the environment of social exclusion. Social exclusion, according to Hess (2006), is the process where individuals or a community are systematically partially or fully blocked from various opportunities, rights, and resources customaril y available to the society, and which is fundamental to social integration within that specific group (Hess, 2006). By excluding poor white men from voting, they intentionally manipulated the government structure to support their desires and interests at the cost of the 90 percent. Fast forward well over 239 years later, we have a new movement with protests being conducted across the country about the 1 percent ruling class (Paine, 1999). In direct approach, the phrase refers to income and wealth concentration among the top earning representing 1 percent and as well as a reflection of an opinion that 99 percent are paying heavily for the mistakes of a small minority within the upper class (Paine, 1999).Some may argue and contend that the law for non-votes was in existence for less than 60 years, and by 1850 allowed all white males were given the right to vote. However, scholars still questions on the number of generations that got impacted by the decision. Secondly it raises concern s about the influences it has in the current American society. Undeniably, Rowen, (2014) indicates that the United States of America is the world oldest and most esteemed democracy. However, the impacts of class according to him, in the society have led to pervasive and serious problems in its politics and government. The concept of classism, Rowen (2014) writes, has for the last half century promoted disgust among the Americans. Classism has reduced the trust of the public in the political institutions, elected officials, and increasingly becoming indifferent to democratic participation. Classism in America has reduced the levels of civic engagement and trust in government. David et al. (2009) highlights that activity such as voting, working on campaigns, contacting elected officials that depend upon democracy has significantly reduced over the past two generations. By virtue of class, the elected officials are considered a representative of few individuals rather than the electorate. Most Americans believe that politicians lie and pander to serve their political interests and that of the rich individuals or the high class (David & Weimer, 2009).The Generational Impact of Social Exclusion Based on ClassResearch shows that social exclusion creates a host of long lasting issues and challenges to th e individuals or groups that have been excluded. This is clearly evident with the recent 99 percent protesters. This long lasting impact is clearly seen in the actions of the Founding Fathers. One of the biggest issues that helped to launch the American Revolution was the argument about taxation without representation (Young, 2000). Of course, the group with the biggest argument was the Founding Fathers. Most of these men were wealthy, upper middle class, and the educated. With all their wealth and education they still had to contend with a society that limited their social mobility were woven into the fabric of the state, which meant they were excluded from the higher echelons of politics and government (Rosenberg, 2008). This exclusion had to be a constant reminder to these men that in reality, they had no voice. Anytime group is excluded from a process it is oppression, and oppression of any kind creates repercussions for all.Research by Iris Marion Young documents that there are five â€Å"faces† of oppression: exploitation, violence, powerlessness, marginalization, and cultural imperialism (Young, 2000). Reading from the concept of the Founding Fathers of America, most likely, they felt powerless, marginalized, and culturally imperialized. By having to pay taxes, and no say in the direction of the government, and the lack representation would surely touch on several types of oppression that Iris Young has identified. Likewise, reports from media titled â€Å"Classism Does NOT Go Both Ways† (2014) provides that that that people and groups who have experienced social exclusion attempt to reconnect at some point. This reconnection can take the form of (a) ingratiating social behavior, (b) attention toward and sensitivity to social cues, and (c) the activation, exaggeration, and even the invention of perceived relationships to important individuals or groups. It is significant to acknowledge and remember this point since it relates to classicism among white males in the United States.After the revolution, it is clear that the Founding Fathers adopted some of the same thoughts and ideas of their perceived oppressors in how they viewed and treated poor whites. Data shows that poor White males were in a challenging situation. Their plight could almost be compared to minority males over the centuries in the United States. Thomas, (2014) writes about the national situation in the post-war mid-1780s. He further documents that the merchants and coastal wholesalers made several efforts to re-establish large-scale trade with the Great Britain. However, the British merchants ceased from offering credit and instead demanded cash (â€Å"specie†). As a result, the wholesale traders insisted on the use of hard money from shopkeepers. Likewise, the shopkeepers saw it wise that the farmers repay their loans in cash with immediate effect (Thomas, 2014). The American farmers had previously been used for loan settling for goods, crops , and labor. Unexpectedly, farmers were matched into debtor courts leading to the seizure of their properties such as land and goods when they couldn’t pay or get confined for unpaid debts. For instance, Thomas (2014) provides that in the farming community of Hampshire County Massachusetts from 1784 to 1786 32.4 percent of the county’s men over sixteen were hauled into court, and many were thrown into jail. The conditions of the jail were deplorable. Prisoners were stockpiled into one cell and were held without proper food, ventilation, many got sick and some died.The Founding Fathers in a quick turn of circumstances went from being the oppressed to the oppressor by determining and controlling who could vote. In turn, poor white men, who fought for liberty to pursue freedom, were given limited freedom. It seems this one historical fact, has been overlooked. The studies that address or discuss the effects of social exclusion of poor white people are significant because it explains the cultural beliefs and ideas as it relates to poor white people in rural and southern areas in the United States (Zweig, 2000). This would also explain how poor whites tend to identify collectively with political referendum that doesn’t support their own economic plight. According to Zweig, (2000), the observations of Molden and Mane that discusses the impacts of social exclusion that makes the excluded find ways to ingratiate themselves with their oppressor; along with paying close attention to social clues; and, the creation of an exaggerated connection. This is clearly the case with poor whites as a collective group.The ruling class has established certain symbolic meanings for being an American, and by following those meanings, you are closely aligned with them. Cone, (1991) writes that from saluting the flag, singing the national anthem, prayers in school, and so forth, the ruling class has established certain social norms that most poor whites can identify and follow. Besides setting up symbolic meanings, the early ruling class defined and created a structure to provide privilege to those they deemed worthy. This was successfully done through government, organizations, and social settings. This aligns with MSS research in which they highlight that the rights and privileges are supported and defined through rules, laws, individual strength and conventions. According to the research, rules and laws are political power instruments the government and politically affluent uses to determine the social structure (Cone, 1991). For instance, gift properties and selling rights that support the privileges of the property-owning class. Furthermore, conventions and customs provides social determinants of structure, for example, Cone (1991) provides that the privilege on the basis of religion, caste, or economic class, personality strength and individual capacity, he observes, are also elements that defines social privilege, for instance, the righ ts accumulating to the wisest most skillful, strongest, or most courageous personalities. According to the research, these rules, conventions, laws, and customs, which support and define privileges and rights of power owners, besides, perpetuate the denial of rights to the section of the community that is underprivileged or unprivileged. As such, the structure developed by the political affluent to foster societal development based on greater functional efficiency, also acts as a barrier that positively eliminates a part of the society from benefiting from the accruing development (Cone, 1991).ConclusionClass affects people from emotional, economic, political, and social level. The attitude of the classists has caused great pain in American politics and governance by dividing the subordinate group members from one another as well as suppressing individual means for personal fulfillment. The impact of class that has resulted in the usual level of collusion between the dominant group members and the subordinate group member has led to means of survival by gaining access to the resources retained by the dominant group. Indeed, class is more than just economics and social dynamics of classism. The patterns of behavior and thinking of classists at personal level promotes classism that results into politics of self-interest and that of the wealthy individuals. While the founding fathers believed that economic and political freedom are twin pillars of democracy, it has promoted a high degree of classism in America. This has led to politics of oppression and personal gains.The founding father of the United States adopted the first written constitution that protected the economy of the country by protecting businesses, personal property, rights of speech and authorizing the Congress to control the commerce of the country. While their contribution cannot be ignored nor disputed, it led to elements of classism that continues to influence the politics and governance of Am erica. In a nutshell, the freedom of classism requires a reversing conditioning process through healing of the class and political oppression wounds, reclaiming the past and present class experiences and sorting present classism to enable the country shape its political identities and foster positive relationships and cohesion among the Americans. References Alvez, J., Duarte, S., & Timney, M. (2008). Human rights theory as a means for incorporating social equity into the public administration curriculum. Journal Of Public Affairs Education, 14(1), 51–66. Arnett, J. (1995).Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the Context of a Cultural Theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family , 57 ( 3 ) , , 617 – 628 Barrow, M. (December, 2014). British Life and Culture. http://resources.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/class.htm. 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